W

W. (7, 16). In animal models of HIV-1 infection of humans, neutralizing antibodies have been shown to contribute to protection from virus infection or disease induction (33, 47, 49, 62). The only virus-specific targets on HIV-1 accessible to neutralizing antibodies are the Bismuth Subsalicylate envelope glycoproteins (7, 81). The gp120 exterior envelope glycoprotein and the gp41 transmembrane envelope glycoprotein are organized into trimeric complexes on the Bismuth Subsalicylate viral surface. The sequential binding of gp120 to the CD4 receptor and either the CCR5 or CXCR4 coreceptor is thought to trigger conformational changes in gp41 that ultimately result in the fusion of the viral and target cell membranes. During the course of natural HIV-1 infections, virus-neutralizing antibodies are often generated but the neutralizing titers are often low (27, 37). The study of monoclonal antibodies from HIV-1-infected humans or from animals vaccinated with various preparations of HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins has provided information on the viral epitopes recognized by neutralizing antibodies. Most neutralizing antibodies bind the gp120 envelope glycoprotein, which is the major exposed protein on the viral envelope glycoprotein trimer (29, 80). The gp120 glycoproteins of various HIV-1 strains have evolved surface-exposed variable loops (V1 to V5) that contribute to the protection of more conserved gp120 structures from neutralizing antibodies (36, 66, 80). Some of these variable structures, such as the V2 and V3 loops, serve as targets for neutralizing antibodies (61). Antibodies directed against the V3 loop, which determines chemokine receptor choice, can block the binding of gp120 to CCR5 or CXCR4 (54). Neutralization by anti-V3 antibodies, although potent, is often limited in breadth to a small number of HIV-1 strains (61, 76). Less-common V3 loop-directed antibodies with somewhat greater Rabbit polyclonal to CREB.This gene encodes a transcription factor that is a member of the leucine zipper family of DNA binding proteins.This protein binds as a homodimer to the cAMP-responsive element, an octameric palindrome. breadth have also been described (18, 19, 65). The more conserved receptor-binding surfaces of the HIV-1 gp120 glycoprotein also represent targets for neutralizing antibodies Bismuth Subsalicylate (7, 80, 81). The CD4-binding site (CD4BS) antibodies recognize a discontinuous gp120 region that overlaps the binding site for CD4. CD4-induced (CD4i) antibodies bind a highly conserved gp120 element that is critical for the gp120-chemokine receptor interaction. It is thought that the ability of CD4BS and CD4i antibodies to interfere with receptor binding contributes to their neutralizing capability. Some HIV-1-neutralizing antibodies appear to be elicited only rarely in HIV-1-infected individuals. One of these antibodies, 2G12, recognizes a carbohydrate-dependent epitope on the heavily glycosylated surface of gp120 that is exposed on the assembled envelope glycoprotein trimer (57, 58, 74). Other rarely elicited antibodies bind a linear gp41 epitope proximal to the viral membrane (43). The precise mechanism by which these antibodies interfere with HIV-1 entry is uncertain. Different models for the neutralization of various viruses by antibodies have been proposed, ranging from the sufficiency of one antibody to inactivate a virion to the requirement for coverage of the entire virion surface (9, 34, 48, 60). As one of the better-understood examples, the influenza A virus, which is similar in size to HIV-1, has Bismuth Subsalicylate about 200 to 300 envelope glycoprotein spikes per virion and requires an average of 70 immunoglobulin G molecules to be neutralized (1, 17, 25, 69, 70, 79). Understanding the stoichiometric requirements for antibody neutralization of HIV-1 is complicated by the replication defectiveness of the vast majority (greater than 99%) of HIV-1 virions (6, 30), by the small number of intact envelope glycoprotein trimers per virion (12, 20, 30, 85), by spontaneous and ligand-induced dissociation (shedding) of gp120 from the envelope glycoprotein complexes (40, 50, 59), and by potential heterogeneity among HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein complexes (6, 21, 51). For example, each HIV-1 virion has 7 to 14 envelope glycoprotein spikes, and an unknown fraction of these.